The Iliad : Summary

Summary

Background

The Iliad, composed by Homer, is one of the greatest ancient Greek epics. It is believed to have developed as an oral poem in the 8th century BCE. In ancient Greece, poets would recite stories of wars, heroism, and the gods in song form. Out of this oral tradition, The Iliad was created. The story is centered on the Trojan War, which blends Greek mythology with historical narrative. Historians still debate whether the Trojan War actually took place, but it remains deeply rooted in the imagination and cultural consciousness of ancient Greece. In this epic, Homer depicts not only war but also human emotions, pride, the chains of fate, and the intervention of the gods.

Characters like Achilles, Hector, Agamemnon, and Priam become immortal, both in realistic and symbolic ways. At the core of the poem lies the wrath of Achilles and its terrible consequences. It shows how personal emotions and pride can influence the course of a great war. The Iliad is not merely a history of war; it is a reflection of the heroism, sense of honor, and philosophy of death in ancient Greek society. It laid the foundation of European literature and culture. By weaving together the beliefs, mythology, and values of his time, Homer created a story that is both semi-historical and semi-mythological. For this reason, The Iliad is considered one of the fundamental pillars of Western civilization’s early literature.

mythology, and values of his time, Homer created a story that is both semi-historical and semi-mythological. For this reason, The Iliad is considered one of the fundamental pillars of Western civilization’s early literature.

 Summary

The Iliad – Story (Books 1–4)

The story begins with an invocation to the Muse. The events take place toward the end of the Trojan War. The Trojans and the Achaeans (Greek armies) are locked in battle. The Achaean forces are made up of many Greek kingdoms and princes, under the command of Agamemnon, king of Mycenae. Chryses, a priest of Apollo, came to Agamemnon offering a ransom of great wealth for the return of his daughter, Chryseis. Although many Achaean leaders agreed, Agamemnon refused. Insulted, Chryses prayed to Apollo. In anger, Apollo sent a plague into the Greek camp.

For nine days, the plague raged. Then Achilles, leader of the Myrmidons, called an assembly. Under pressure, Agamemnon agreed to return Chryseis. But, out of spite, he seized Achilles’ prize, Briseis. Humiliated, Achilles declared he would fight no longer. Odysseus returned Chryseis to her father, and Apollo ended the plague. Meanwhile, Agamemnon’s messengers took Briseis from Achilles. Grieved, Achilles prayed to his mother Thetis, who in turn appealed to Zeus. She asked him to grant victory to the Trojans so the Greeks would realize how much they needed Achilles. Zeus agreed.

Zeus then deliberately sent Agamemnon a deceptive dream, telling him, “If you attack today, Troy will fall.” Taking it as truth, Agamemnon called the army together the next morning. To test their spirit, he told them, “Let’s all return home.” To his shock, the soldiers actually rushed to the ships. Then, inspired by Athena, Odysseus stopped them. When a common soldier, Thersites, protested, Odysseus struck him and silenced him. Afterward, the Achaeans assembled in order.

Hearing this, the Trojans also came forth. Before the armies clashed, Paris proposed single combat with Menelaus. The cause of the war was revealed: Helen, the wife of Menelaus and the most beautiful woman in the world, had been taken by Paris from Sparta.

Menelaus and Paris agreed to duel: the winner would take Helen. Menelaus was about to win, but the goddess Aphrodite rescued Paris and carried him to Helen. Meanwhile, the gods debated whether the war should end, but Hera persuaded Zeus that it must continue until Troy was destroyed. Athena then urged the Trojan archer Pandarus to shoot at Menelaus. He wounded Menelaus, breaking the truce, and the terrible battle began again.

(Books 5–7) – The Story of Diomedes and Hector

In battle, Diomedes killed many Trojans. He slew Pandarus and defeated Aeneas. When Aphrodite tried to save Aeneas, Diomedes attacked the goddess and wounded her hand. Then Apollo warned Diomedes not to fight against the gods. But Diomedes did not obey. Apollo then sent Ares, the god of war, to defeat him. The gods came down to help both sides. Encouraged by Athena, Diomedes even wounded Ares and drove him from the battlefield. Meanwhile, Hector rallied the Trojans and prevented them from breaking.

Diomedes and the Trojan hero Glaucus faced each other in combat but stopped fighting. Glaucus told the story of his ancestor Bellerophon. They discovered a bond of family friendship and exchanged gifts, though Glaucus foolishly gave his golden armor in exchange for Diomedes’ bronze armor, an unequal trade. Hector returned to the city. He asked his mother, Hecuba, to offer prayers and sacrifices to the goddesses. He also urged Paris to return to battle. On the city walls, Hector said farewell to his wife Andromache and their infant son Astyanax before rejoining the fight.

Later, Hector and Ajax fought a duel. As night fell, the battle stopped, and both sides returned to their camps. The Trojans then debated whether Helen should be returned. Some agreed, but Paris insisted on returning only the treasure, not Helen. The Achaeans rejected the offer. At last, both sides agreed to a truce for a day to bury their dead. During this time, the Achaeans built a wall and a trench to protect their ships and camp.

(Books 8–15) – A New Phase of the War

The next morning, Zeus ordered the gods not to interfere in the battle. The fighting resumed. This time, the Trojans grew stronger and pushed the Achaeans back to their wall. Hera and Athena were forbidden from intervening. Night fell before the Trojans could attack the wall fully, so they camped in the open plain, their watchfires burning like stars in the sky.

Meanwhile, the Achaeans were in despair. Agamemnon admitted his mistake. He sent an embassy of Odysseus, Ajax, and Phoenix to Achilles, offering to return Briseis along with rich treasures if he would rejoin the fight. But Achilles, still furious, refused. He declared that he would only return to battle if the Trojans set fire to his ships. The embassy failed and returned in disappointment.

That night, Odysseus and Diomedes entered the Trojan camp. They killed the Trojan spy Dolon and wreaked havoc in the Thracian allies’ camp. The next morning, the battle was fierce. Agamemnon, Diomedes, and Odysseus were all wounded. Then Achilles sent his friend Patroclus to learn the condition of the Achaeans. Nestor advised Patroclus that if Achilles would not fight, then Patroclus should wear Achilles’ armor and lead the army himself.

(Books 13–15) – The Trojans Attack the Achaean Wall

The Trojans attacked the Achaean wall. Hector led the terrible fighting. Despite ominous signs, he pressed the attack. The Trojans broke through the wall and forced the Achaeans back toward their ships. Poseidon, pitying the Achaeans, secretly helped them, raising their courage. Many were slain in the battle. Poseidon’s grandson, Amphimachus (son of Cteatus), was killed. Poseidon then filled Idomeneus with divine strength. The Trojan seer Polydamas warned Hector of danger, but Hector ignored him.

Meanwhile, Hera seduced Zeus and lulled him to sleep. During this time, Poseidon aided the Greeks further, pushing the Trojans back onto the plain. Ajax wounded Hector, and he was carried back into Troy. When Zeus awoke, he was enraged. He reassured Hera that Troy was still destined to fall, but only after Hector killed Patroclus. Poseidon was forced to withdraw from the battle. Zeus then sent Apollo to aid the Trojans, and with his help, they broke through the Achaean wall again. The battle reached the ships of the Achaeans.

(Books 16–18) – The Death of Patroclus and the Grief of Achilles

Patroclus could endure no longer. Weeping, he went to Achilles, reproaching him for his stubbornness. He asked: if Achilles would not fight, then he should let him go in his place. Patroclus begged to wear Achilles’ armor so the Trojans would believe he was Achilles himself. Achilles agreed but sternly warned him: drive the Trojans back from the ships, but do not pursue them to the city walls. Achilles hoped that once the battle was turned, he and Patroclus would together capture Troy.

Patroclus led the Myrmidons into battle just as the Trojans were setting fire to the Greek ships. In the sudden onslaught, the Trojans fled. Patroclus fought fiercely and killed Sarpedon, son of Zeus. But he disobeyed Achilles’ command. He pursued the Trojans all the way to the gates of Troy. There Apollo struck him and stopped him. Still, Patroclus managed to kill Hector’s charioteer, Cebriones. Yet Apollo and Euphorbos weakened him, and finally Hector killed him. Hector stripped the armor of Achilles from Patroclus’s body. The Trojans tried to seize the body, but the Achaeans fought desperately to save it. Antilochus ran to Achilles to bring the news and call for help.

Hearing it, Achilles was shattered with grief. His cries reached his mother, Thetis, beneath the sea. Thetis knew that if Achilles killed Hector, his own death would soon follow. Yet Achilles swore to take revenge. Without armor, he was clothed in a brilliant radiance by Athena. Standing beside the Achaean wall, Achilles roared in fury. His voice terrified the Trojans, who fled, allowing the Achaeans to recover Patroclus’s body. Polydamas urged Hector to retreat into the city, but Hector refused. The Trojans camped on the plain. Meanwhile, Achilles mourned bitterly over Patroclus. Thetis went to Hephaestus, who forged for Achilles magnificent new armor and a marvelous shield.

(Books 19–24) – The Final Battle Between Achilles and Hector, and the End

At dawn, Thetis brought Achilles his new armor. But she found him still weeping beside the body of Patroclus. Then Achilles put on the armor and prepared the soldiers for battle. Agamemnon returned the promised treasures and Briseis to him. Yet Achilles remained indifferent to all of it. While the others ate, he refused food. His horse, Xanthos, prophesied that Achilles would soon die, but Achilles was unmoved. He entered the battle.

Zeus lifted the ban on divine intervention. The gods freely aided both sides. Blazing with rage, Achilles slaughtered countless Trojans. The river ran red with blood. The river god Scamander rose to stop him, but Achilles fought on. At last, Hephaestus’s fire drove the river god back. Even the gods themselves clashed in battle.

The gates of Troy were opened, and the Trojans fled inside. Apollo, disguised as a Trojan, lured Achilles away from the city. When the trick was revealed, the Trojans had all taken shelter inside, except Hector. Priam and Hecuba begged Hector to enter the city, but he chose to fight. Yet when Achilles approached, Hector’s courage failed, and he fled. Achilles chased him three times around the walls of Troy. At last, Athena, disguised as his brother Deiphobus, deceived him into stopping. Hector stood and prepared to fight.

After a brief duel, Achilles struck Hector through the throat and killed him. With his last breath, Hector reminded Achilles that his own death was near. Achilles stripped Hector’s armor and desecrated the body, tying it to his chariot and dragging it around the city walls. Priam, Hecuba, and Andromache wept in grief. That night, the ghost of Patroclus came in a dream, asking to be cremated so that his soul might find peace in the underworld. Achilles promised that their bones would be placed together in one urn. Patroclus was cremated, and the Achaeans held funeral games in his honor.

Yet Achilles was broken with sorrow. Each day, he dragged Hector’s body around in rage. The gods were angered by this dishonor. Zeus decided Hector’s body must be returned. With Hermes as his guide, the aged Priam drove a wagon of gifts to the Achaean camp. He clasped Achilles by the knees and begged for his son’s body. Achilles wept. Though enemies, the two shared their grief. Finally, Achilles relented. He returned Hector’s body and granted a twelve-day truce for the Trojans to mourn. Priam brought Hector’s body back to Troy. Hector was given funeral rites and a noble burial. The whole city wept in sorrow.