Poetics : Summary

Summary

Chapter 1: Intention of the Text: Aristotle begins this book by saying he will study poetry. He will explain its types, parts, and how a good poem is made. He will also examine the structure of the plot and other essential things in poetry.

He says all poetry and some other arts are forms of imitation. But they are different in three ways: the medium used, the things imitated, and the way of imitation.

Some arts, such as music, use rhythm, language, and harmony to imitate. For example, music with flute or lyre uses rhythm and harmony. Dancing uses only rhythm. Even dancing can show emotion, character, and action. These are shown through body movement.

Other arts use language only. This can be in prose or verse. The verse may have one or many metres. But a verse alone does not make someone a poet. For example, Homer is a poet, but Empedocles, who wrote science in verse, is not. Chaeremon mixed all kinds of metres in his poem “Centaur.” Still, he is called a poet because he imitated something.

Some forms, such as tragedy, comedy, dithyrambic, and nomic poetry, utilize all three elements: rhythm, tune, and words. But they use them in different ways.

Chapter 2: What Tragedy and Comedy Depicts: Aristotle says that all imitation shows people in action. These people can be better, worse, or the same as real life. Painters also do this. Polygnotus painted people better, Pauson worse, and Dionysius painted them as they are.

Poets and artists also follow this rule. Homer portrays better people, Cleophon depicts normal people, and Hegemon or Nicochares portrays worse people. The same happens in music and dance. Timotheus and Philoxenus showed different types in their Cyclopes.

This is why tragedy shows people better than real life, and comedy shows them worse.

Chapter 3: Origin of Drama (Origins Of Drama (Linked To Dorians) And Etymology Of “Drama” (From Dran, “To Act”)). In this chapter, Aristotle talks about the third difference in imitation. It is the manner of imitation. Poets can copy action in different ways. They can narrate stories, like Homer, using their own voice or another’s voice. Or they can show characters acting in front of us, like in plays.

So, imitation differs by medium, object, and manner. Sophocles and Homer both show noble people. But Sophocles and Aristophanes both show people acting, so their work is called drama, which means action.

Aristotle claims that the Dorians claim to have invented comedy and tragedy. The Megarians also claim comedy came from their area. They give language examples and old poets like Epicharmus as proof. Aristotle concludes by stating that these are the primary ways imitation occurs in poetry and art.

Chapter 4: The Origin of Poetry: Aristotle states that poetry arises from two natural causes. First, people love to imitate. Children learn by copying others. Humans are the most imitative animals. Second, people enjoy seeing imitations. Even ugly things, like dead bodies or strange animals, give us pleasure when shown in art. This is because we enjoy learning through imitation. When we see a picture, we feel happy if we recognize it and say, “Ah, that’s him.”

Another natural gift is rhythm and harmony. People used this gift to create songs and poems. Slowly, simple songs became real poetry.

Poetry grew in two directions. Serious poets wrote about noble men and great actions. Light poets wrote about low people and funny actions. At first, these were just hymns and jokes. Later, they became real poems.

Homer was the first great poet. He wrote serious poems (Iliad and Odyssey) and a funny one called Margites. This poem is like the beginning of a comedy. So, Homer influenced both tragedy and comedy.

In time, poets followed their talents. Satirical poets wrote comedies. Epic poets began writing tragedies.

Both tragedy and comedy started as rough shows. Tragedy came from dithyramb songs. Comedy came from phallic songs.

Aeschylus added a second actor, reduced the chorus, and made the dialogue important. Sophocles added a third actor and scene-painting.

Early plays were short and had funny language. Later, they became longer and more serious. The iambic metre replaced the old dancing rhythm (trochaic). Iambic metre was better because people spoke like that in real life.

Over time, tragedy changed and grew. It found its best form and stayed that way. Other parts, such as episodes (scenes or acts), were added later. These details are too long to explain here.

Chapter 5: Epic vs. Tragedy: Aristotle says comedy shows people of a lower type, but not evil ones. Comedy shows something ugly or foolish, but it is not painful or harmful. For example, a comic mask looks ugly but causes no pain.

Tragedy has a clear history, but comedy was not serious at first. Early comic actors were volunteers. Later, poets like Crates gave comedy proper plots. These plots came from Sicily.

Epic poetry is similar to tragedy in that both feature noble characters in verse. But epics use one metre and tell stories. Tragedy uses action and has a time limit. Epic stories have no time limit.

Tragedy includes all parts of epic poetry. So, one who knows tragedy well also understands epic poetry.

Chapter 6: Definition of Tragedy: Aristotle now provides a clear definition of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of a serious and complete action. The story must have the proper size and order. It is not told through narration, but rather by showing characters in action. It employs rhythm, harmony, and song in various sections. The goal is to bring about pity and fear, which help to purify emotions (catharsis).

Tragedy must have six parts: Plot, Character, Thought, Diction, Song, and Spectacle. These are the elements that make a tragedy good or bad. Among them, plot is the most important. Tragedy is about actions, not just characters. A good plot evokes emotions in the audience. Even if the characters are weak, a strong plot still creates a powerful effect.

Plot is like the soul of the tragedy. Character comes second. In painting, we enjoy a clear drawing more than mixed colors. Similarly, a good plot is better than fine speeches with no real action. Some key plot elements include Reversal (Peripeteia) and Recognition. These make the story powerful and emotional.

Next is Thought, which means what characters say in each situation. It shows their choices, values, or ideas. Diction means how words are arranged. This applies in both poetry and prose. Song gives beauty to the play. It is the most important artistic part. Spectacle means stage effects. It brings pleasure, but depends more on the actors and stage tools, rather than the poet.

Aristotle says tragedy works even without stage action. So spectacle is less important than the other parts.

In short, a tragedy needs action more than anything. A good story with deep emotion, strong structure, and moral meaning is the heart of true tragedy.

Chapter 7: Plot Structure: Aristotle says a good tragedy must have a well-made plot. A proper plot must be complete, with a beginning, middle, and end. The beginning does not follow anything, but something follows it. The end comes after something else, but nothing follows it. The middle comes after one thing and leads to another.

A good plot also needs a proper length. It should not be too short or too long. Like a body, it should have a clear size and order. If it is too small or too big, it becomes confusing. A good plot should be easy to understand and remember. It must also show a change, either from good to bad or bad to good, based on logic or need.

Chapter 8: Unity of Plot: Aristotle states that a good plot must have unity of action, not just a single hero. Telling many stories from one man’s life does not make a single plot. Some poets wrongly think that because Heracles was one man, all his stories form one action.

Homer did it correctly. In the Odyssey, he chose only events that were connected. He left out unrelated parts.

A good plot must be one complete action, where all parts are linked. If one part is removed and nothing changes, it was not truly needed.

Chapter 9: Poetry vs. History: A poet should write about what may happen, not what has happened. He should follow what is possible by probability or necessity. Poetry is different from history. History tells real facts. Poetry shows what could happen in general. 

So, poetry is more universal and philosophical than history. Comedy often uses imaginary names and follows a probable plot. Tragedy uses real names, but the events must still feel possible. Some tragedies even use only imaginary characters, like in Antheus by Agathon. 

So, poets should not always use famous stories. Unknown stories can also give pleasure. A poet should focus more on making a good plot than writing beautiful verses. A bad plot is one with random scenes that do not follow a clear cause-and-effect relationship. 

The best tragic plots make us feel fear or pity, especially when events come by surprise and follow a natural sequence, not by chance. This makes tragedy more powerful.

Chapter 10: Simple vs. Complex Plot: Plots are either Simple or Complex. A simple plot has a change of fortune without Reversal or Recognition. A complex plot includes Reversal, Recognition, or both. These should come naturally from the plot. The events must happen because of earlier actions, not just after them. This makes the story logical and believable to the audience.

Chapter 11: Key Elements of Complex Plot: Reversal occurs when events suddenly turn in the opposite direction, yet still follow the principles of probability or necessity. In Oedipus, a messenger tries to calm Oedipus, but ends up causing pain. In Lynceus, Lynceus is meant to die, but Danaus dies instead. 

Recognition means a shift from ignorance to knowledge, causing love or hate between characters. The best recognition occurs with a reversal, as seen in Oedipus. Sometimes, objects or actions also cause recognition. The strongest recognition is when people know each other. This creates pity or fear, the key emotions in tragedy. 

Recognition can be one-sided or two-sided. In “Iphigenia,” letters help both sides know each other. Tragedy also includes a Scene of Suffering, which shows pain, death, or bodily harm on stage.

Chapter 12: Structural Parts of Tragedy: Tragedy has six main elements, which have already been discussed earlier. Now, Aristotle explains the structural (quantitative) parts. These parts include: Prologue, Episode, Exode, and Choric songs. Choric songs are divided into Parode and Stasimon. Some plays also include actor songs and Commoi (sad songs by the Chorus and actors together).

• Prologue: The part before the Chorus enters.
• Episode: The scene between two choric songs.
• Exode: The final scene, which concludes without a choric song.
• Parode: The Chorus’s first full song.
• Stasimon: A Chorus song without special meters.
• Commos: A shared sorrow song by actors and the Chorus.

Chapter 13: Ideas of an Ideal Tragic Hero: Aristotle now explains what a tragic poet should do and avoid. A perfect tragedy must follow a complex plot, not a simple one. It must show actions that cause pity and fear, which are the main goals of tragedy.

First, the fall of a very good man from happiness to suffering is not tragic. It shocks the audience, but does not create pity or fear. Second, a person rising from suffering to happiness is not necessarily tragic either. It is morally wrong and gives no sad feeling. Third, a very evil man falling into misery does satisfy justice, but brings no pity or fear.

The best tragic hero is someone who is neither entirely good nor entirely bad. He suffers not because he is evil, but because of some error or weakness. He should be famous and respected, like Oedipus or Thyestes.

A good plot should transition from happiness to sadness, not the other way around. The change must happen because of a mistake, not because of wickedness. The best tragedies are often based on famous myths and families, such as Orestes or Alcmaeon.

Some criticize Euripides, but Aristotle defends him. His plays are truly tragic, even if they have sad endings. Plays that end happily for good people and badly for bad ones are more like comedies, not true tragedies.

Chapter 14: Pity/Fear Should Arise from Plot, Not Spectacle: Aristotle now explains how pity and fear should be created in a tragedy. These feelings can stem from stage effects, but the most effective way is through the plot itself. A great poet can move us even if we only hear the story. For example, the story of Oedipus is tragic even without seeing it on stage.

Using monstrous or shocking images is less artistic. The real aim of tragedy is to give pleasure through pity and fear, not just shock. So, the events must be well-planned to create these feelings.

Tragic actions should happen between close people. If enemies hurt each other, it is not tragic. But if a brother kills a brother, or a mother kills her son, it becomes deeply tragic. The story should follow well-known legends, such as Orestes killing Clytemnestra, but the poet must also add their own skill in telling the tale.

There are four main ways to present tragic actions:

• The character does an evil act knowingly, like Medea killing her children.
• The character does it unknowingly, then learns the truth later, as in the case of Oedipus.
• The character plans the act knowingly, but does not carry it out—this is less tragic.
• The character almost does the act unknowingly, then stops after recognizing the person—this is the best way.

Good tragedies use this fourth way. For example, in Cresphontes, Merope almost kills her son, but stops in time. In Iphigenia, the sister and brother know each other just in time. This is why tragedies often arise from famous families with such emotionally charged stories.

Aristotle concludes by stating that he has now explained the best plot structure and tragic actions.

Chapter 24: Epic Poetry in Details: Epic poetry, like tragedy, has many types: simple, complex, ethical, and pathetic. It includes essential parts like Reversals, Recognitions, and Scenes of Suffering, but unlike tragedy, it does not use song or spectacle. Homer is the best example of epic poetry. His Iliad is simple and pathetic, while the Odyssey is complex and ethical. Both show excellent diction and thought.

Epic poetry differs from tragedy in size and metre. The story must fit into a single view and be shorter than old epics. Tragedy focuses on one action on stage. Epic poems can tell many actions happening at once, which makes them grand and interesting. These different events stop the story from becoming boring.

The heroic metre is the best for epic poetry. It is stately and allows rare words and images. Other meters, like iambic or trochaic, are suitable for action or dancing, but not for long epic poems. Mixing metres is odd, so great poems are always in heroic verse.

Homer shows how a poet should work. He speaks little in his own voice and quickly introduces characters with distinct personalities. The wonderful or unbelievable is needed in tragedy but has more freedom in epic poetry because the story is told, not acted. For example, a long chase in a play might seem silly, but in an epic, it is fine.

The poet should use probable impossibilities rather than improbable possibilities. Irrational parts should be avoided in tragedy or kept outside the main action. Even when impossible events happen in epic poems like the Odyssey, the poet’s skill makes them believable and enjoyable.

Diction should be clear during pauses, so character and thought are not hidden by fancy language.

Chapter 26: Tragedy is Better than Epic Poetry: Aristotle asks which is the higher art: Epic or Tragic poetry. Some say tragedy is less effective because it relies on acting and gestures, which can sometimes be overdone. Bad actors twist and move too much to please simple audiences. Epic poetry is said to be for more cultured people who only listen and do not need gestures. So, tragedy is seen as less refined.

However, Aristotle argues that this criticism pertains to acting, not poetry itself. Even epic recitations can have bad acting. Not all action or dancing is bad, only poorly done. Tragedy can still be powerful when read without being acted out. Its faults are not part of the art itself.

Tragedy is actually superior to epic poetry because it incorporates all the elements of epic poetry, plus music and spectacle. These give strong pleasure. Tragedy also works more quickly and intensely than epics, which often take longer to tell their stories. For example, Oedipus would lose power if it were as long as the Iliad.

Epic poems have less unity because they tell many stories, like the Iliad and the “Odyssey.” These epics are well-structured, but still comprise many parts. A long epic must include several actions, which makes it less focused.

Tragedy is better at achieving its goal. Each art should give the pleasure proper to it, and tragedy does this best. So, Aristotle concludes that tragedy is the higher art.

He finishes by saying he has explained the kinds, parts, and qualities of epic and tragic poetry, the causes of good and bad poetry, and answered critics’ objections.